Athletics (Olympic sport since 1896)

   About

   Athletics is, in many ways, the embodiment of the Olympic motto, "Citius, Altius, Fortius", meaning faster, higher, stronger.

   Athletics (or track and field) is about running faster, jumping higher and throwing further than your competitors. The ancient Games at Olympia began simply with foot races, only occasionally complicated by dressing the runners in infantry armour or making them carry soldiers' shields. Today, athletics remains one of the most popular Olympic sports. From the 100m dash to the 42.195km marathon, from the hammer throw to the high jump, it contains many of the Olympic Games' blue-ribbon events and many of the highest-profile competitors.

   Competition

   Athletics can be divided into four areas: track, field, road and combined events.

   Track events

   Include sprints (100m, 200m, 400m), middle-distance running (800m and 1500m) and long-distance running (5000m and 10,000m), hurdling (100m and 400m for women, 110m and 400m for men), relays (4 x 100m and 4 x 400m) and the 3000m steeplechase.

   Field events

   For both men and women, include the long jump, triple jump, high jump, pole vault, shot put, discus, javelin and hammer throw. The women's pole vault and hammer throw debuted at the Sydney 2000 Games.

   Road events

   Consist of the men's and women's marathons, the men's 20km and 50km race walks and the women's 10km race walk.

   Combined events

   The heptathlon for women and the decathlon for men - athletes compete in a series of track and field events over two days. Points are based upon their finishes in each event, and the person with the most points wins.

History

   Discipline's origin

   Athletics, or track and field, is the original Olympic sport. The first event contested in the ancient Olympics was the stade race, a sprint of about 192 metres. Recorded victors in this event are known as far back as 776 BC. Other athletics events in the ancient Olympics included longer foot races, a race in armour, and a pentathlon event that consisted of the stade race, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw and wrestling. Similar events were held in ancient Greece at the Isthmian, Nemean and Pythian Games.

   Throughout recorded sports history, athletics has always been practised. Many of the attempted revivals of the Olympics in the 19th century consisted mostly of athletics contests. In Europe, local fairs and festivals often included running, jumping and throwing events. In Ireland and Scotland, these developed into organised sets of Tailteann and Highland Games, respectively.

   Olympic history

   Since the revival of the modern Olympics, athletics has been the most publicised sport on the Olympic programme. Today, athletics is rivalled only by football (soccer), basketball and volleyball as the most practised sport. There are basically six "categories" within track and field athletics: running, hurdling, walking, jumping, throwing and multi-events. Each of the categories include several different events, now fairly standardised throughout the world.

   Track and field athletics has been held at every Olympics since 1896. Women's track and field athletics began at the 1928 Olympics and has been contested ever since. Although the men's programme has varied it has become fairly standardised since 1932. In addition, although women were first allowed to compete in only a few events, today they have a programme of almost the same events as the men. As of the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, the only differences in the men's and women's programmes are that men contest a steeplechase event and women do not, the men have two walks (20km and 50km) and the women only one (20km), the distance for the women's high hurdles race is 100 metres and for the men's 110 metres, and the women compete in a heptathlon, while the men compete in the decathlon.

   The United States' men have always been the top nation in the world in track and field athletics. Among the women, the Soviet Union and the GDR (East Germany) were the top powers prior to the dissolution of those two nations. These days, the United States continue to dominate in the sprints, hurdles and horizontal jumps. The African nations, notably Kenya, Ethiopia, and Morocco, are now the dominant forces in the distance running events. Prior to and in the early 1970s, the dominant nation in distance running was Finland.

Equipment

   Bar

   The crosspiece of wood, metal or plastic which high jumpers and pole-vaulters must clear.

   Baton

   A smooth, hollow metal or wooden tube which is passed from one relay runner to the next.

   Box

   The contoured dugout in which pole-vaulters place their pole to jump over the bar.

   Circle

   The round area within which shot-putters, discus and hammer throwers must stay when throwing their respective projectiles.

   Running shoes (100M)

   Special shoes with no heels are used which have 11 crampons which cannot be longer than 9mm in length.

   Running shoes (Marathon)

   Light running shoes are used, thus reducing the strain on the athlete.

   Running shoes (Walking)

   The shoes are light with thin soles which make walking easier.

   Running shoes (Steeplechase)

   Crampons in the front of the shoes are shorter making it easier to clear the steeples. Reinforced heels are used to soften the impact of the landing.

   Discus

   A wooden plate rimmed with metal, thrown by athletes aiming for the greatest distance.

   Hurdles

   The obstacles which contestants must leap over in a hurdles race.

   Javelin

   A metal or wooden shaft with a metal point, similar to a spear, thrown for distance.

   Hammer

   A heavy metal ball attached to a wire cable which is attached to a handle, used for the hammer throw.

   Shot

   A heavy metal ball used in the shot put.

Glossary

   Anchor: The last runner in a relay race.

   Breakline: An arc across the track denoting the point where runners may leave their original lane and use any part of the track, which is normally the inside lane.

   Changeover: The passing of the baton from one runner to the next.

   Countback: A process used to determine the winner if two high jumpers or pole vaulters reach equal heights, based upon reviewing which athlete failed least in his or her jumps at that height or in the whole competition.

   Crouch start: The crouched position all sprinters must assume before starting a race.

   Decathlete: A contestant in a decathlon.

   Decathlon: An athletic contest comprising 10 different track-and-field events and won by the contestant having the highest total score.

   False start: An illegal beginning to a race in which a runner begins before the starter's pistol is fired.

   Field event: An athletic event that involves jumping or throwing.

   Fosbury flop: A style of high-jumping, named after former high-jumper Dick Fosbury, in which the athlete clears the jump facing upwards, with the back to the bar, and lands with the back on the mat.

   Foul: A violation where, most commonly, an athlete jumping or throwing for distance steps across the line or circle defining the limit of the athlete's approach to an attempt.

   Hammer throw: The field event in which athletes attempt to throw the hammer as far as possible.

   Heat: An early race of an event, with the top finishers advancing to the finals or semi-finals of the competition.

   Heptathlete: A contestant in a heptathlon.

   Heptathlon: An athletic contest comprising seven different track-and-field events and won by the contestant having the greatest total score.

   High jump: 1. A vertical jump with which athletes attempt to clear a bar. 2. The field event in which athletes attempt to jump over a bar.

   Hurdles: A running race in which athletes must leap over set obstacles on the track.

   Javelin: The field event in which athletes attempt to throw the javelin as far as possible.

   Jump the gun: To commit a false start by beginning before the starter's pistol is fired.

   Jump-off: A sudden-death contest used to determine the winner in high jump and pole vault if the athletes finish at the same height and a countback cannot determine the winner.

   Lanes: The eight alleys on the track which runners must run in during some races.

   Lap: 1. One time around the track. 2. To surpass another runner in a race by one loop of the course.

   Leg: One of a number of parts of a race, each of which must be completed to determine the winner.

   Lifting: A violation in the walk for lifting a foot before the leg has bent for a moment.

   Long distance: The label given to the races at least 10,000 metres in length.

   Long jump: 1. A jump with which athletes aim to cover the greatest distance from a given mark. 2. The field event in which athletes try to jump as far as possible.

   Marathon: A 42.195-kilometre road race re-enacting the distance run by a Greek messenger in 490 BC.

   Middle distance: The label given to the races covering 800, 1500 and 5000 metres.

   On your mark: The starter's call for runners in a race to move to the starting line and assume position to start the race.

   Pentathlete: A contestant in a pentathlon.

   Pentathlon: An athletic contest comprising five different events and won by the contestant having the highest total score.

   Pole vault: 1. A leap over a horizontal bar with the help of a long pole. 2. The event in which athletes try to clear a bar with the help of a long pole.

   Relay: A race in which athletes race in teams of four, taking turns to run.

   Road race: A race run on established roads or footpaths, not on grass or other soft ground.

   Runway: A running strip for jumpers and throwers where they build up speed as they approach their attempts in their events.

   Scratchline: A line marking the centre of the take-over zone.

   Set: The starter's second call to runners in a sprint, alerting them to rise quickly into their final starting positions before the starter's gun is fired.

   Shot-put: The field event in which athletes try to put, or throw, the shot as far as possible.

   Sprint: A short race at full speed, generally meaning a race of 400 metres or less.

   Starter's gun: The pistol used by the starter to fire blanks in the air, signalling the start of a race.

   Starting blocks: A pair of angled supports for the feet, temporarily attached to the track, to increase the power of a sprinter from a crouch start.

   Steeplechase: A race run by people over a course which features obstacles such as water-filled ditches and barriers.

   Stop board: 1. The far point of a tapered box sunk into the runway for the pole vault, where the vaulter's pole is intended to lock into position as the athlete launches into the air for the vault. 2. The raised board that defines how far a thrower can range before releasing his attempt.

   Sudden death: An extra round or rounds of competition held to resolve a contest that has resulted in a tie, e.g. a jump-off in the high jump or pole vault.

   Take-off board: A rectangular board, usually made of wood, placed in the runway in the long jump and triple jump, marking the jumping area.

   Take-off line: The plasticine line at the end of the take-off board in long jump and triple jump before which athletes must have jumped.

   Take-over zone: A defined area in a relay race where the baton must be exchanged between runners on a team.

   Track: 1. The oval course laid out for racing. 2. Athletic events run on that course.

   Uprights: The vertical poles which hold the bar in high jump and pole vault in place.

   Walk: A race where the walker must have at least one foot on the ground at all times and the advancing leg must be kept straight.

   Water jump: A man-made obstacle in the steeplechase usually consisting of a miniature swimming pool containing water up to 70 centimetres deep.

   Western roll: A style of high jumping where the athlete takes off with the leg nearest the bar and rolls towards the bar while trying to clear it horizontally and face down.

   Zigzag principle: A style of draw which distributes the leading contenders evenly across the different heats.